Listing description
Oenothera biennis (common evening-primrose,[2] evening star, sun
drop, weedy evening primrose, German rampion, hog weed, King's cure-all, or
fever-plant.[3]) is a species
of Oenothera native to
eastern and central North America, from Newfoundland west to Alberta, southeast
to Florida, and southwest
to Texas, and
widely naturalized elsewhere in temperate and subtropical
regions.
Detailed description
Evening
primrose oil is produced from the plant.
Uses
The evening primrose was introduced to Europe in the
early 17th century as an ornamental plant in botanical gardens. Its possible
applications in the kitchen and as medicinal plant were only discovered more
than 100 years later. However, indigenous tribes in North America (namely
the Cherokee, Iroquois, Ojibwe and Potawatomi) were using the
plant as food and medicinal crop for hundreds of years. Today, the evening
primrose is mainly known as garden plant and as medicinal plant in specialized
sectors. However, almost all parts of the evening primrose are edible and
medically or cosmetically applicable. This includes the roots, leaves,
blossoms, flower buds and seeds.[14]
Food uses
The fact that virtually all plant parts are edible
makes the evening primrose an interesting food crop. In general, the taste of
the plant is mild and reminds of mangold. Sometimes there can be a rough
aftertaste.[14]
The roots can be eaten raw or
cooked like potatoes. They can be used from the young plant, from September
until the first flowering stem is developed. If soaked in water and boiled the
taste is similar to black salsify root.[14]
The leaves of the evening primrose
can be used from April to June when the plant is not flowering yet. They can be
eaten raw in salads or cooked like spinach or in soups.[14] Several Native
American tribes made tea from the evening primrose leaves and used it as a
dietary aid.[11] Evening
primrose leaves contain flavonoids, mucilages, tannins, sugar, resin
and phytosterols.[14]
The flowering stems are preferably
used when they are still young in June. They have to be peeled and can then be
eaten raw or fried. The flower buds are denoted as delicacy
and can be harvested from June to September. They are mild in taste and can be
eaten raw in salads, pickled in oil, fried or in soups. The flowers themselves
are edible as well and have a sweet taste. They can be used as garnish for
salads but also in desserts. When the fruits are still green
in August and September they can be used similar to the flowering stems.[14]
The seeds are probably the part of
the evening primrose which is most widely used. They have a rather high protein
content of about 15%, an oil content of 24% and contain about 43% cellulose.[15] The proteins
are especially rich in sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, as well as in tryptophan. Tryptophan and
methionine are essential proteins and thus very important for the body
function.[15][16] Nevertheless,
there is a relative deficiency in lysine and four other amino acids which makes the
protein composition somewhat unbalanced. However, evening primrose seeds
contain a rather high amount of calcium, iron and zinc if looking at their ash
composition.[15] But most
importantly, evening primrose seeds oil contains a high amount of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which is a high quality, essential multiple unsaturated fatty acid. This makes evening primrose oil to a widely sold dietary
supplement. The whole seeds can also be used similar to sesame roasted and in
pastries.[14]
Medicinal uses
The evening primrose has become of interest to
physicians in the 1980s mainly due to its high content in GLA found in the
seeds.[12][13] The oil of
mature seeds contains approximately 7-10% (sometimes up to 14%[15]) of GLA,[17][18][19] an essential
fatty acid labeled as a C18:3-ω-6 fatty acid[13][15] which is
usually rare in plants.[14]
GLA is a preliminary stage in the production of the
tissue hormone prostaglandin, which is essential for the proper functioning of a cell.
Because of aging and disease many people are not able to perform this
conversion in a sufficient quantity.[20] Symptoms and
diseases like endogenous eczema, the Sjögren-syndrome, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), polyarthritis, multiple sclerosis and menopausal symptoms can be induced by a prostaglandin
shortage. Thus, an additional intake of GLA might help to cure these symptoms.[12][21]Evening primrose
oil, containing GLA, is often used to treat some of these medical conditions.[21]
Also other plant parts and extracts of the evening
primrose are used for medical purposes. The intake of extracted plant fluids
and oils could have a blood-purifying and antispasmodic effect.[14]
Medical treatment of eczema
Evening primrose is sometimes used to treat eczema. The Cochrane Collaboration conducted a meta
analysis of clinical trials studying the effect of orally administered evening
primrose oil (EPO) on eczema and concluded that there was no effect.[22] The Mayo
clinic examined evidence for the safety and effectiveness of evening primrose
for several conditions; it was considered that there was good evidence
(grade B, vs "strong evidence", grade A) that it produced a
moderate improvement in eczema.[23] Grade C,
unclear, evidence for benefit is listed for many conditions, including some
reduction of blood pressure. Research has shown a lack of significant
beneficial effects on heart function and health. Many conditions for which
evening primrose is a traditional remedy or there is a theory suggesting
efficacy are listed by the Mayo clinic, without comment.
There are conflicting opinions and evidence for the
medicinal effects of GLA. The active constituent of EPO, which has been
promoted to treat ailments including breast pain and eczema; such marketing was
described by the British Medical Journal (BMJ) as ethically dubious—the substance was likely to be
remembered as "a remedy for which there is no disease".[24] Another single
source suggests that Evening Primrose Oil with adjuvant vitamin E, may reduce
breast pain.[25] The BMJ said
in 2003 that it was of no use in atopic dermatitis.[26] The American Cancer Society said in 2010 that there was very little evidence for its
effectiveness as an anti-cancer agent, for which it is sometimes promoted, and
"neither GLA nor other GLA-rich supplements (such as evening primrose oil)
have been convincingly shown to be useful in preventing or treating any other
health conditions."
Adverse effects
EPO is considered likely to be safe in recommended
doses.[28] It may increase
the risk of bleeding, a concern for patients with bleeding disorders or taking
drugs that may increase bleeding. The Mayo clinic recommends caution in people
with seizure disorders or mania, and by pregnant or breastfeeding women, and
publishes a long list of possible side-effects.
Most studies evaluating the effectiveness of EPO
used a dose of 1600 mg of standardized extract (4 capsules) by mouth twice
daily for up to 12 weeks.
Traditional medicinal use
The whole plant and especially the leaves were
boiled to tea by Native American tribes as a stimulant to treat laziness and
against “over fatness”. The tribes also used the roots externally to treat
piles and boils. Additionally, they were chewed and rubbed onto the muscles to
improve strength.
PRICE
$96.73/KG
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